History

Activity 1: The Macartney Mission to Peking 1793

Task 1: Investigating a visual source

Open image to the right, showing it to the students without any details of what it is meant to represent and who painted it. In small groups ask students to:

• describe what they think is going on
• suggest some questions they'd like answered about the image.

The answers can be shared as a whole class, with the teacher offering comments where appropriate about the validity of the student descriptions and the quality of the proposed questions. The teacher-led whole class discussion should highlight the need for further information to allow a more complete interpretation of the image.

Task 2: Establishing contextual background

Provide contextual background on the Macartney mission, including the British desire for trade with China; the strength of Chinese society and culture; and the official Chinese attitudes to trade. Use the text provided below and the attached questions. A PDF of the full text can be seen here.

1. What does this text indicate about China in 1793, and about the Chinese sense of the significance of their civilisation?
2. What was a key difference between the official Chinese and British attitudes to trade and merchants?
3. What was the aim of the Macartney mission?
4. How likely to succeed do you think the Macartney mission would have been?

Task 3: Linking contextual information and the pictorial source

Ask students:

• whether the contextual information addresses any of the questions they posed
• how the contextual information helps them understand the picture
• what they would expect the outcome of the meeting to be
• whether the picture seems to be a credible representation of the mission/meeting.

After reading the contextual information, students should be asked to examine the painting again. The following questions could be provided.

1. What do you think is the most significant thing happening in the picture? Why?
2. Does the picture convey a sense of the scale of the Macartney mission (as described in the historical context)? Explain.
3. Does the picture suggest that this was a meeting of equals? Explain.
4. Has the artist provided any ‘clues’ about what the Chinese and the British were thinking and feeling during the meeting? Explain.

Task 4: Background to the artist – William Alexander

The artist, William Alexander, was appointed by the British Government to record the activities of the Macartney mission. Alexander was a relatively inexperienced and young artist at the time and it seems Lord Macartney did not place a great deal of importance on his role. The meeting between the Emperor and Macartney took place in Rehe, north of Peking. On the occasion of the actual meeting between Macartney and the Qianlong Emperor, however, Alexander was not present. He remained in Peking finishing sketches of the gifts Macartney had brought. Macartney refused to allow him to accompany the British mission. Alexander relied on sketches of Macartney's journey made by an artillery officer, Parish, who was also a draughtsman. Alexander also may have used Macartney’s own description of the meeting recorded in his journal.

Ask students to consider to what extent Alexander could be expected to produce an accurate portrayal of the meeting.

Activity 2: Investigating written sources

Task 1: Using a written source – Macartney's diary

I came to the entrance of the tent and, holding in both my hands a large gold box enriched with diamonds in which was enclosed the King’s letter, I walked deliberately up and, ascending the side steps of the throne, delivered it into the Emperor's own hands who, having received it, passed it on to the minister by whom it was placed on the cushion.
(Cranmer–Byng 1963, p 65)

The audience with the Qianlong Emperor was held in a tent in the grounds of the Summer Palace in Rehe, north of Peking. Macartney and his entourage waited outside the tent before being summoned. He presented a letter from King George III to the Emperor.

Ask students to comment on the extent to which the description in the journal entry reflects the details of the painting by Alexander. Would Alexander have had access to this journal? Does this description by Macartney explain why Alexander painted the meeting as he did? Teachers might encourage students to think about what is missing from Macartney's journal. He makes no reference to going down on one knee as the painting shows.

Students could be asked to reconsider:

• Would Alexander be expected to produce an accurate portrayal of the meeting?
• Does he portray either side in a more favourable light?

Task 2: Exploring the potential for intercultural misunderstanding

The Macartney mission was an encounter between two great but different powers. Over the past two centuries, historians have written much about the meeting between Lord Macartney and the Qianlong Emperor. In particular, they have focused on how Lord Macartney behaved and what the Emperor would have thought of that behaviour. At the centre of the issue was the practice of 'kowtow'. Students are provided with text about this practice, which can be found here.

In 1793, a person granted an audience with the Qianlong Emperor was expected to 'kowtow' – to approach the Emperor and bow so low that one's forehead touched the floor … which may suggest he didn't kowtow, but in a poem the Emperor wrote about the meeting he seems to express satisfaction at the actions of the British.

Provide the following questions to students:

Questions

1. Study the picture of Macartney's meeting with the Emperor. What does the picture indicate about how Macartney acted? Does this prove that Macartney did not kowtow? Explain.
2. Assuming that Macartney did not kowtow, what do you think his reason(s) would have been? Do you think his decision was a wise one? Explain.
3. Does the fact that Macartney makes no reference to the kowtow in his journal entry above prove that he did not kowtow?
4. Assuming Macartney did not kowtow, what might the Emperor have thought of his behaviour, and how might that have affected his response overall to the Macartney mission?

Other examples of intercultural misunderstanding can also be found in the issue about the gifts. There was great debate in England before the mission set out about what gifts to take to the Emperor and there has been much discussion about the gifts the Emperor gave Macartney. Macartney commented in his diary that he considered the jade sceptre he was given, for example, a gift of no great value. Yet, in his journal, Macartney seems to emphasise the value of the gifts he provides, in particular describing the magnificence of the jewelled box which contained the letter from King George III to the Emperor. Teachers could discuss with students the idea, perhaps, that Macartney is seeing the exchange as a mercantile exchange and not as a symbolic exchange. Jade held great significance for the Chinese and jade gifts were more than just an item with a particular monetary value.

Task 3: Introducing another written source – a letter from the Qianlong Emperor to George III

The Qianlong Emperor sent a response to the request from Britain in the form of two edicts, often referred to as letters as they were meant to be a communication to King George III. The term 'edict' emphasises that these were not private letters but were meant to a declaration within Chinese officialdom. The two edicts are similar and one of them is provided for students in the resources section.

You, O King … Do you reverently receive them and take note of my tender goodwill towards you! A special mandate.

The full text of the letter can be found here.

Ask what this source suggests about China at the time, about the Chinese sense of self, and about the official Chinese attitude to contact with foreign countries.

As an alternative to reading this source in its entirety and answering all the questions, small groups of students could be allocated sections of the source to study, pursuing an overall set of questions:

• What does this section say?
• What does it suggest about China's sense of itself?
• What does it suggest about their attitude to others?
• How do you think King George would have reacted to the Emperor's letter?

More detailed questions could be asked if teachers feel there is time and they are appropriate for the class.

Detailed questions:

1. What words and phrases does the Emperor use to describe the position and attitude of King George III and the British nation? How do those words and phrases position Britain in relation to China?
2. What words and phrases does the Emperor use to describe himself: his position; his importance; his values; his attitudes?
3. In what ways has the Emperor treated the Macartney mission in a special manner, according to his letter?
4. What does the Emperor say that he thinks of the gifts given to him by Macartney?
5. What reasons does he give for refusing the British request for trading and diplomatic concessions?
6. What does the Emperor's description of the 'European officials in Peking' indicate about China's attitude to other nations and civilisations?
7. How do you think King George III would have reacted when reading the Emperor's letter? Why?

Students could be asked to consider whether the translation could have changed the meaning of the original letter in subtle ways. There is also a suggestion that the British officials simply prepared a summary of the letter. Students could be asked to consider what the importance of this might be.

1. How might this background information change your views about the likely success of Macartney's mission?
2. There is no evidence that the letter was ever delivered to King George III. If the king didn't ever receive the letter, does it still have any value as a historical source? Explain.
3. What does this letter indicate about the challenges of intercultural contact and understanding?

Question 3 could be discussed by all students. They could be asked to examine the comments the Emperor makes about King George, about his views of the gifts the British have sent and why he has refused the British requests.

Comparing the letter and the painting

Look again at the William Alexander painting of the meeting. Do you detect any evidence that the artist was aware of the potential failure of the meeting? Explain.

Activity 3: Historical interpretation of the Mission

Task 1: Introducing and interrogating a secondary visual source

Show students the Gillray drawing of the meeting between Macartney and the Emperor. Initially, ask them what they think the image depicts, whether it differs from the William Alexander painting, and how any differences might be explained.

Then introduce the idea of caricature – the exaggeration and distortion of some aspects to convey a particular message or meaning – and have students scrutinise the image for examples.

Initial interrogation of the source

1. Do the features of the image suggest that it portrays the same meeting as in the Alexander painting? Explain.
2. What are the major differences between this image and the Alexander painting?
3. How might you explain those differences; that is, how or why would two artists portray the same event differently?
4. Do you have any sense that one of the two images is more accurate than the other as a portrayal of the meeting? Explain.

Significance of caricature

The Alexander painting appears to be a 'realistic' portrayal. However, the Gillray image is a caricature; a portrayal that exaggerates, distorts or invents particular aspects to create a particular impression or to convey a particular, critical message. Students could be asked to use the following table to try to identify and explain some of the caricatured aspects of the Gillray image. An example is provided.

The question of dating

Given your study of the Gillray image, when do you think it could have been drawn? Select one of the options below and justify your selection with reference to the image itself and/or to your knowledge of the Macartney mission.

• The image was drawn during the actual meeting or immediately afterwards.
• The image was drawn after the Emperor's rejection of the British requests.
• The image was drawn before the meeting took place.

Be prepared to explain your selection to your classmates.

A puzzling answer

Gillray drew his caricature three days after Macartney left England for China, which was a year before the actual meeting between Macartney and the Emperor. And yet his caricature does bear some resemblance to what happened. Think about these questions:

1. How could Gillray have had any idea of what the meeting between Macartney and the Emperor would have looked like?
2. What evidence is there that Gillray was familiar with some aspects of Chinese society?
3. What evidence is there that Gillray knew what form the meeting would take, for example that Macartney would present gifts to the Emperor?
4. Does it seem that, a year before the Macartney Mission, Gillray was poking fun at the plan to send the mission to China? Explain.

An added dimension

Gillray was known as a critic of King George III. It has been suggested that his caricature of the meeting was actually poking fun at the King. How could English readers have interpreted the image in that way?

Evaluating the Gillray image as a historical source of evidence

Ask students to consider:

• If the Gillray image was drawn a year before the meeting took place between Macartney and the Emperor, does it have any value as a source of evidence about what happened in that meeting? Explain.
• If the Gillray image has no value as evidence of what happened in the meeting, does it have any value at all as a historical source of evidence? If so, as evidence of what?

Task 2: The historical debates about the Macartney mission

Historians do not always agree on the role of events from the past or on how sources should be interpreted. Some topics bring about a lot of public debate in the media and this is sometimes quite heated and even distorted. Students need to understand that informed debate is an integral part of history and that as long as this debate is grounded in appropriate evaluation of the sources, then it is natural for historians to have different perspectives. For further elaboration of this, teachers might check the National Centre for History Education's Historical Literacy under the heading Contention and contestability.

The Macartney mission has produced different views among historians. It failed in its key aims of achieving increased trade opportunities for the British in China and of having China accept British diplomatic representation in the capital.

Given what you have learned so far, what do you think explains why the mission failed?

Historians – who have the time, energy and expertise to study the available sources – have debated the reasons for the mission's failure. They have proposed four main interpretations:

• The failure was caused by the Chinese sense of their superiority and their belief that they had no need for the things that the British wanted to trade.
• The failure was caused by the British ignorance of Chinese beliefs and practices and their consequently inappropriate way of approaching the Chinese.
• The Chinese failed to understand the changing nature of international diplomacy and in particular the importance of British power at the time.
• The failure was the product of the interaction of two different systems of belief, values and practices, in which neither side seemed willing or able to adapt to the other's expectations.

Task 3: Summing up the situation in 1793

Discuss the idea that, although the mission was a failure, the visit was a landmark event in the history of relations between China and Britain. Britain's dissatisfaction and frustration drove future developments, particularly the opium trade, which precipitated the beginning of the decline of the Qing dynasty.

After that, introduce the 'puzzle' of when the caricature was produced. Have students share, explain and justify their choices. Finally, have students assess whether the caricature has any value as a historical source of evidence.

Activity 4: The Treaty of Nanking 1842

This topic continues on from the Macartney mission in 1793. After the British proposals were rejected, the British continued to expand their trade with China, but there was a significant trade deficit between Britain and China in China's favour. This section begins with a similar activity by introducing students to another visual image of a meeting between China and Britain.

Task 1: Investigating a visual source

Show students the image of the signing of the Treaty of Nanking 1842 between China and Great Britain without informing them of what the painting represents. Inform them that this is a painting of another meeting between Britain and China.

Ask students to compare this meeting with the Macartney meeting. Ask them to suggest what seems to be happening here and to think about whether it can be used as evidence to suggest a change in the relationship between Britain and China. Ask them to suggest some questions they might like answered about this meeting. The teacher-led whole class discussion should highlight the need for further information to allow a more complete interpretation of the image.

Task 2: Contextualising sources

This background information provides a link between the Macartney mission and the events of 1839–1842 with the British expansion of trade to China and the problem of a trade deficit. The full text can be found here.

Questions

1. Why did Britain use opium in its trade with China?
2. What action did the Chinese take to deal with the problem?
3. Do you think Commissioner Lin saw his actions as illegal?
4. Do these events suggest any changes in the nature of imperial control in China since the Macartney mission? Explain.

Task 3: Introducing a written source

Extract from a letter from Commissioner Lin to Queen Victoria

Every native of the Inner Land who sells opium, as also all who smoke it, are alike adjudged to death … Please let your reply be speedy. Do not on any account make excuses or procrastinate. A most important communication!

Students read extracts from a letter sent by Commissioner Lin to Queen Victoria. Commissioner Lin was appointed by the Emperor to stamp out the opium trade in Canton. A link to the full text of the letter can be found here. Students might think about the problem of relying on only excerpts. The letter is rather long for year 9 students and even the chosen excerpts have rather convoluted language which some students may find challenging. Teachers may wish to divide students into groups to handle sections of the letter and ask them to select evidence of Commissioner Lin's policies, his actions and his attitude to foreign traders.

Questions

1. Do you think Commissioner Lin is being reasonable in his request to Queen Victoria? Explain.
2. Why might Britain take exception to the tone of the letter?
3. The letter never actually reached Queen Victoria but, if it had, what do you think her reaction might have been?

Activity 5: Causes and context

Task 1: Exploring the causes of conflict

Why nations engage in violent conflict can appear to be straightforward at times, but the obvious causes can often hide a complex web of long-term issues and short-term reasons. There was much debate in the British Parliament about the war and whether Britain should engage in this war. Given the distance between China and Great Britain and the length of time it took for communications to reach Britain from China, events at times seemed to have pre-empted the discussions. The debate in parliament was heated at times.

Some of these arguments included:

• If Britain pulled out of the opium trade then other nations would simply step in so it wouldn't solve the problem of opium addiction in China.
• If Britain put an end to opium production in India it would cripple the Indian economy.
• Commissioner Lin had violated British sovereignty by placing British merchants under house arrest in Canton.
• The opium that Commissioner Lin had destroyed was the legal property of British merchants and they should be compensated for their losses.
• Commissioner Lin's letters and edicts were seen as insults to Britain's prestige and treated Britain as if she were inferior to China.
• The Chinese were free to reject opium if they chose, and they were not being forced to smoke it.
• Opium traders were not criminals violating any laws but legitimate business men conducting legal businesses according to international law.

Teachers might discuss the issues outlined above on legal, economic, moral and political grounds.

1. Which of the above arguments seem to be on commercial grounds?
2. Which of the arguments seem to be based on Britain’s ideas of her place in the world?
3. Which of the arguments do you think is the least justified?

The British did launch an attack on China and British Member of Parliament, William Gladstone, condemned the British action.

He described the opium trade as, 'this infamous and atrocious traffic' and in reference to the First Opium War he stated 'a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace, I do not know, and I have not read of'. (Barrow 1840, p 2460)

Teachers might discuss what other motives Gladstone might have had for making this statement besides expressing concern for the ethical behaviour of Britain. Students need to understand the issues surrounding statements in parliament and the possible political agenda members of parliament might have had, especially from someone who was in opposition.

Teachers might like to pursue the opium trade further by having students view a video clip on the opium trade. As with any video, teachers should view it first and then decide if it is suitable for the class or if it adds anything to the understanding of the issue. The following videos may add some more background to students' understanding of the opium trade.

• Drugs, slaves, guns: Part 1 and Part 2

Teachers might like to refresh their own background on the opium trade by watching the Harvard lecture on this topic. This is unlikely to be suitable for Year 9 students, as it is in a tertiary lecture format.

Task 2: Relating the contextual information to the picture

Teachers may now like to return to the original painting as students will now be able to explore it in relation to its contextual information. An excellent online resource to explore the painting in more detail is through the Brown University Centre for Digital Scholarship.

Explain to students that this picture is titled, 'The signing and sealing of the Treaty of Nanking 1842'. A formal treaty to end the First Opium War was signed on board the British warship, HMS Cornwallis. Ask students how the contextual information helps them understand the picture. They could be asked to discuss the possible purpose of the painting in light of this information.

Background to the artist

Paintings pose certain problems for historians as evidence of events. Can they ever actually truly represent events as they happened? There are always issues about style, purpose and the artist's background. The painting was by Captain John Platt in 1846 and the various copies of it are from an engraving by John Burnet. The official title beneath the original painting is:

'The Signing and Sealing of the Treaty of Nanking in the State Cabin of H. M. S. Cornwallis, 29th August, 1842' (detail) Painted by Capt. John Platt

John Platt, the artist, was a Captain in the Bengal Volunteers. He had served in India and he fought in the First Opium War. He was awarded the China Medal for his role in this conflict.

Questions

1. Are there any indications from the painting that Platt might have been present at this meeting?
2. Can we assume that because he fought in the war he was probably present at the signing of the treaty?

From The British Museum we learn the identity of the key British and Chinese individuals who are depicted in this painting. The British Museum image has a line drawing of this artwork with the names of all the individuals shown in the painting.

Discuss with students whether the inclusion of all the names means that this painting is an actual representation of the signing of the treaty. If all these individuals were not present, then why might Platt have included them in the painting?

Task 3: Comparing sources

This image (upper right) shows a commemorative medal struck by the British government to celebrate the conclusion of the First Opium War. The words at the bottom of the medal read, 'THE TRIUMPH OF THE BRITISH ARMS 1842'. On the reverse side of the medal is the head of Queen Victoria.

Questions

1. What differences can you observe between the painting and the scene on this medal?
2. How might the differences between the two representations be accounted for?
3. Does either of these images provide historians with evidence of what occurred at the actual signing of the treaty? Explain.
4. The female figure in the middle represents 'peace' while the female figure blowing the trumpet represents 'triumph'. Why might the British have included these figures on this medal?
5. Does the image of the commemorative medal suggest that Gladstone was correct in suggesting the war would bring permanent 'disgrace' to Britain?
6. If neither of these images can be accepted as evidence of what occurred at the meeting then how might they be useful to historians?

Activity 6: Historical interpretation of the Treaty

Task 1: The consequences of defeat

Within forty years of the Macartney mission, Britain had engaged in a war with China and had ended up with the very things she had wanted from the Macartney mission. The terms of the Treaty of Nanking which ended the First Opium War in 1842 are summarised below.

• Britain forced China to open up five ports to British trade with the freedom of the British to trade with whomever they wished and with British consuls in each of the treaty ports.
• Tariffs were to be fixed and Britain had to approve of the tariff.
• China was to pay an indemnity of 21 million silver dollars to Britain as compensation for the destroyed opium and the cost of the war.
• China was to cede the island of Hong Kong to Britain.
• British citizens in the treaty ports were to be tried under British law (extraterritoriality).

Before long, other Western powers exacted similar concessions and China was forced to agree to most favoured nation clauses in treaties. (See the glossary for explanations of these terms)

Questions

1. Why has the Treaty of Nanking been called the first of the 'unequal treaties'?
2. Who gained the most from this treaty?
3. Were any Chinese likely to benefit? Explain.
4. Why might this treaty be seen as an economic and political disaster for the Qing dynasty?

Task 2: Summing up

Discuss the idea that the Treaty of Nanking marked a significant turning point in China's relations with the West. The concessions won by Great Britain were to be mirrored in the approaches of other Western powers. The tensions between China and Western nations finally resulted in further military conflict during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900.

This event could be added to the students' timeline.

Activity 7: From Opium War to Boxer Rebellion

Task 1: Examine a French political cartoon from 1898

Provide students with the cartoon on the right and ask them to describe what is happening and then suggest some questions they might pose about this source. (It is a French cartoon: Chine is the French word for China.) Class discussion should highlight the need for further information to allow a more complete interpretation of the image. The younger woman in the cartoon is the French Marianne, a traditional representation of France in art of the 19th century.

Task 2: Establishing context

Provide students with some background on the period during which this cartoon was published. This could include the colonial rivalry among European countries at the turn of the century and the ambitions Western countries had in China. It might also include the apparent impotence of China by the turn of the century in the face of Western pressure. Have students read the following text.

Background information: Western imperial ambitions in China (View full text here)

The losses China suffered … There was little difference from the Chinese point of view between having certain parts of China under the influence of a particular European power compared to having all of them with equal access to China.

Teachers should provide students with the opportunity to complete more of their timeline by recording on it the events mentioned in the contextual information provided.

Questions

1. What does this text indicate about China's ability to confront Western ambitions?
2. Was the American approach to trade with China likely to be more or less beneficial to China than the approach of European powers?

Task 3: Relating contextual information and the pictorial source

Ask students whether this contextual information answers any of their questions, how it furthers their understanding of the cartoon, and whether the cartoon adequately represents the situation at the time. With this background, students can further elaborate on this source. Class discussion and questions should allow the key aspects of the source to emerge, such as the apparent relationships among the 'nations' at the table, the 'message' of the cartoonist, the way 'France' is depicted and why, and the point of view of the cartoonist.

Students could be asked to reflect on whether any of the nations depicted here is presented in a different light from the others. They might be helped in establishing this by examining the Foreign spheres of influence in China 1904 (PDF 64 KB) showing the spheres of influence of European powers at the turn of the century. They might notice that France is represented on the map with a particular sphere of influence in southern China, which might raise questions about the way France is depicted in the cartoon. She is not 'carving up' China as are Germany and Britain and yet France was a partner with Britain in the Second Opium War against China in 1860.

Questions

1. How 'friendly' towards one another do these 'people' appear to be?
2. Might there be any significance about the positioning of these people around the table?
3. Does this cartoon contradict information suggested by the map? Explain.
4. Why might this artist have created this image?

Background on the author

Teachers might remind students about what caricature as an art form is from earlier lessons. The artist for this caricature was Henri Meyer who worked for a Paris publication called Le petit journal. Caricature had a long and rocky history in European countries. It was a popular form of political commentary, especially in France in the 19th century, but it was also controversial. Countries like France, Germany, Russia, Spain and Italy regularly placed restrictions on caricatures, and caricaturists were imprisoned in these countries.

Artists who drew caricatures of rulers like the Tsar of Russia and the German Kaiser were particular targets of censorship. However, restrictions against caricatures were periodic and restrictions could be revoked and then reimposed. This left feelings of uncertainty about the position of the caricaturist. The instability of French politics in the 19th century increased the uncertainty, and censorship was imposed and then revoked on at least five occasions in France in the 19th century.

Political cartoons can be wonderful sources for the study of history but they are really quite complex texts and have layers of meaning which only an investigation of their construction can unfold. On the surface, this cartoon might appear to be a commentary on the state of China, but there are more complex layers here.

After providing students with this background on the construction of this cartoon, teachers might ask them to rethink the way France is portrayed and why it is portrayed like this. Can this cartoon be used as evidence and if so evidence for what?

Task 4: Interrogating written sources

This downloadable Boxer Rebellion student activity sheet (DOC 139 KB) can be edited. You might like to change some of the sources to tailor it for your students before you have them complete the task. Discuss with them what the quotations might suggest about Western attitudes to China by the 20th century.

Task 5: A Chinese perspective

The 'official' reaction to Western interference in China came from an edict from the Empress Dowager, Cixi (also referred to as Tsu Hsi), to all the provinces of China.

After reading the edict from the source above, teachers could ask students to consider whether Cixi's response was provocative or whether it was reasonable given the circumstances.

Besides the 'official' response, there was also the response from Chinese citizens themselves. One group which aggressively pursued a policy of resistance to Westerners was a secret society called the Society of Righteous Harmonious Fists, or Boxers.

Students should be introduced to some basic background on the Boxers. China had a long history of secret societies and the Society of the Righteous Harmonious Fists was one of several which existed in the latter half of the 19th century. This society was given the name Boxers by Westerners because of their regular practice of martial arts.

Task 6: Establishing background

The background provides students with an outline of who the Boxers were and what problems they posed for the Qing. Teachers could discuss with students the increasing influence of Westerners in China, particularly missionaries, and the tensions this caused. Students could be encouraged to think about the connections between organisations like the Boxers and depressed conditions for peasants. Peasant unrest is a constant theme in Chinese history and the latter part of the 19th century saw increasing problems for peasants with population expansion putting pressure on land, and natural disasters exacerbating the problems.

Teachers could ask students to consider whether the views of the Boxers might be likely to find support among the majority of Chinese.

Activity 8: Historical interpretation of the Boxer rebellion

Task 1: Examining a written source – Fei Ch'i-hao: The Boxer Rebellion, 1900

Fei Ch'i-hao was a Chinese Christian from Shansi province in China. This is part of his account of the Boxer Rebellion.

The wicked Governor, Yü Hsien, scattered proclamations broadcast. These stated that the foreign religions overthrew morality and inflamed men to do evil, so now gods and men were stirred up against them, and Heaven's legions had been sent to exterminate the foreign devils. Moreover there were the Boxers, faithful to their sovereign, loyal to their country, determined to unite in wiping out the foreign religion. He also offered a reward to all who killed foreigners, either titles or office or money. When the highest official in the province took such a stand in favour of the Boxers, what could inferior officials do? People and officials bowed to his will, and all who enlisted as Boxers were in high favour. It was a time of license and anarchy, when not only Christians were killed, but hundreds of others against whom individual Boxers had a grudge.

Questions

1. According to this source, what positive points could be made about the Boxers?
2. What indication is there in this source that the Boxers used violence?
3. Who were the main targets of the Boxers?
4. What does this writer's view of the Boxers appear to be?
5. Does the fact that this author is a Chinese Christian help you understand his views?
6. How might a historian use a source like this?

Activity 8: Introducing a media source

Exploring the way history is represented through film is a valid exercise for students. Mass media plays a crucial role in the lives of students today and they have access to a huge range of media forms. Re-creation of historical periods and events has always been a favourite pastime of movie and television executives and the special effects available today give such re-creations even more impact.

Students, however, need to assess such re-creations critically. In particular, film re-creations of a historical event reflect the point of view of the creators of the film and often take into account a particular audience. Films do not necessarily set out to present the historical event objectively or authentically. Their main purpose is to entertain and that may well mean adjusting the narrative for dramatic purposes.

In the 1960s, historically based dramatic films were quite popular and often had big budgets and big name stars. One of these is the film based on the Boxer Rebellion, 55 days in Peking. (See Resources.)

While there may not be time to use the whole film, the first 13 minutes can be quite useful. In this first section, we are introduced to the multi-nation presence in Peking (Beijing) with the flag-raising ceremonies. We are also introduced to the Boxers in several scenes, notably in the court scene and in the scene with the missionary priest. The intrigue and conflict in the Chinese Court over the Boxers are introduced as is the tacit support for the Boxers by the Empress Dowager and Prince Tuan (a bit of Australian flavour with Sir Robert Helpmann taking the part of Prince Tuan). We also witness the murder of the missionary priest by the Boxers, which highlights their anti-Christian stance, and of course the measured and practical approach of the American 'hero' of the movie played by Charlton Heston.

Students could be asked to comment on their views of the way the Chinese, in particular the Boxers, are presented and on the way Americans are presented. They might pose a few questions they would like to ask the director. They might also reflect on the multi-nation presence in Peking and compare this to their understandings of the past century of Chinese/Western relations.

Activity 9: Investigating another visual source

The illustration above right is from the front cover of an American magazine from 1900. Show students the illustration and ask them to describe what they see. Then, show them the image of the statue of the Greek goddess Athena below and have them compare the way the women are presented in the illustration and the statue.

Explain to students that Athena was the patron deity of Athens and that ancient Greek civilisation was seen as the foundation of Western civilisation. Provide students with the caption beneath the illustration on the magazine cover and ask them to suggest what the illustration means:

Civilization (to China) That dragon must be killed before our troubles can be adjusted. If you don't do it I shall have to.

They might comment on the puny size of the Emperor and what this suggests and the way the Boxers are depicted as a kind of dragon with blood dripping from its mouth.

Questions

1. Describe what is happening in the cartoon.
2. What is meant by the caption, '… if you don't do it I shall have to'?
3. Who is the intended audience for this illustration?
4. Does this illustration help us to understand American views on the situation in China? Explain.
5. What might the purpose of this illustration have been?

Activity 9: Conclusions

Task 1: Consequences of the Boxer Rebellion

The Boxer Rebellion failed to remove foreigners from China and, instead, saw military force again being used by the West to enforce Western policies. The United States did not wish to see an end to the Qing Dynasty in China because it preferred a stable government with which to negotiate and it feared the demise of the Qing would leave a power vacuum that European countries and Japan would be only too willing to fill to the detriment of American interests.

Have students read The Consequences of the Boxer Rebellion, which can be found here. Discuss with students how these events prolonged the Qing Dynasty yet increased its impotence.

One issue historians have debated about the Boxer Rebellion is whether the Boxers were instruments of positive change in China or whether they were detrimental to the interests of China.

• The revered nationalist leader, Sun Yat-Sen, condemned the Boxers for inciting the people and endangering the country. He saw the Boxers as detrimental to Chinese interests.
• Some see the Boxers as being instrumental in preventing the further division of China among Western powers as the rebellion revealed that dismembering China just might be too costly. German records indicate the Kaiser was advised that pursuing the dismemberment of China would not work.
• Some historians, especially Marxists, have seen the Boxers as heroic champions of Chinese anti-imperialism.
• Many Chinese today see the Boxer movement as the first stage of the democratic revolution in China which finally resulted in the overthrow of the Qing and the establishment of a truly democratic government.
• Some historians view the Boxer Rebellion as China's first nationalist movement.
• Some suggest China was already a nation and the Boxers were not really nationalists but rebels who wanted to return China to the past, not bring about a new order
• Even the terminology has significance. Modern Chinese historians often prefer to describe the event as an 'uprising' not a 'rebellion'. The term 'uprising' in Chinese has more positive overtones of being lifted up, whereas the Chinese symbol for 'rebellion' means chaos and disorder.

Task 2: Concluding activity

Teachers might have students connect the Boxer Rebellion to their first investigation, the Macartney mission, by examining a comment Lord Macartney made in his diary. Students might discuss what Lord Macartney was suggesting and how prophetic this statement might appear to be.

Comment from Lord Macartney's diary, 1793

The empire of China is an old, crazy, first rate Man of War, which a succession of able and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past, and to over awe their neighbours merely by her bulk and appearance. But, whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may, perhaps, not sink outright; she may drift some time as a wreck, and will then be dashed to pieces on the shores; but she can never be rebuilt on the bottom ...

Summary

Teachers could pose the following question to students:

Based on what you have learned so far about the Boxer Rebellion, what is your view on the significance of the Boxers?